This study explores the factors influencing parents’ choices of private and international schools in Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia, using Ajzen’s (1991) Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) as the theoretical framework. Employing a convergent parallel mixed methods design, both quantitative data (n = 109) and qualitative (n = 15) insights from semi-structured interviews were analysed to gain a comprehensive understanding of parental decision-making. Constructs examined included Attitude Toward Behaviour (ATB), Subjective Norms (SN), and Perceived Behavioural Control (PBC), all of which were found to significantly influence Behavioural Intention (BI) in school selection. The findings highlight key influencing factors such as school fees, location, teacher quality, syllabus, environment and policy clarity, with nuanced variations based on socio-economic background and parental priorities.
The quantitative analysis, conducted using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM), confirmed that ATB and PBC were the strongest predictors of BI, while SN showed a moderate influence. Qualitative results further contextualised these findings, uncovering themes such as academic reputation, teacher retention, parental involvement, and concerns about governance and transparency. The study not only confirms the applicability of TPB in a non-Western urban educational context but also contributes practical recommendations for school leaders and policymakers to improve school competitiveness and parental satisfaction.
This research offers significant theoretical and practical contributions by linking behavioural constructs with real-world school selection behaviours. Limitations of the study and directions for future research are discussed, with emphasis on broader demographic sampling, multilingual survey instruments and the inclusion of longitudinal data. The findings provide valuable insights for educational institutions, government agencies, and researchers seeking to understand or influence school choice behaviour in Subang Jaya's evolving educational landscape.
Scroll to read the preview. Download for the complete document.
ACE EdVenture Group. (n.d.). Welcome to ACE EDVENTURE GROUP. Retrieved from https://aceedventure.com/Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behaviour. Organisational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179-211. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/074959789190020TAhmad, N., & Tan, Y. S. (2020). Parental decision-making in education: A study of school choice among urban Malaysian families. International Journal of Educational Research, 103, 101630. Ali, H., & Rahman, M. (2022). Parental influence in school selection: A case study in Malaysian urban areas. International Journal of Educational Studies, 15(3), 45-60. Retrieved from https://ijesjournal.com/articles/parental-influence-school-selectionAli, M., & Mustapha, R. (2021). Parental involvement and school choice in Malaysian urban areas: A behavioural analysis. Asian Journal of Education and Social Studies, 16(3), 1–10.Ali, R., & Yusof, N. (2020). Parental perception of school infrastructure and its impact on school choice. Malaysian Journal of Education, 45(2), 89–101.Altbach, P. G., & de Wit, H. (2020). International higher education: An encyclopedia. Routledge.American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). APA.Asmah, H. O. (2008). Ensuring language sustainability: The case of Malaysia. The International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 2008(189), 57–69. Awan, H. M., Qureshi, S. U., & Aslam, M. N. (2023). Parental decision-making in educational choices: A behavioural framework. Journal of Educational Research and Practice, 13(1), 45–60. Azlan, N. A., & Chong, W. Y. (2022). Parental decision-making and curriculum preference in Malaysian private education. Southeast Asian Journal of Education, 43(2), 71–83.Boone, S. (2020). School choice, track choice and the illusion of free choice: An empirical analysis of secondary school students in Flanders. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 41(5), 636–652. Borup, J., Graham, C. R., West, R. E., Archambault, L., & Spring, K. (2020). The adolescent community of engagement framework: Predicting student engagement in online learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 68(5), 2361–2384.Bosetti, L., & Gereluk, D. (2016). Understanding school choice in Canada. University of Toronto Press.Bunnell, T. (2019). The changing landscape of international schooling. Journal of Research in International Education, 18(1), 3–17Chan, Y. F., & Azmi, N. J. (2018). Factors influencing parents’ choice of private schools in Klang Valley. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 8(12), 1490–1502. Cheah, P. K., & Abu, B. (2020). Parental choice and competition among private schools in Malaysia. International Journal of Educational Development, 74, 102180. Chen, L., Tan, M., & Wong, P. (2021). Factors affecting parents’ decision-making in choosing private education institutions. Asian Journal of Education and Development, 10(1), 27-42. Retrieved from https://ajed.org/research/factors-parental-choiceChen, W.-C., & Yamamoto, B. A. (2016). Parental choice of international schools in East Asia: A survey study. International Journal of Educational Development, 51, 38–46. Cheong, L. K. (2016). Parental choice and school quality: Exploring private and international school preferences in Malaysia. Malaysian Journal of Education, 41(2), 45–59.Chong, S. C., & Cheah, P. H. (2022). Parental expectations and international school enrolment trends in Malaysia. Southeast Asian Journal of Education, 12(2), 45–59.Choi, Á., & Jerrim, J. (2021). Parental school preferences: Evidence from England. British Educational Research Journal, 47(4), 983–1009.Conner, M. (2020). Theory of planned behaviour. In M. Conner & P. Norman (Eds.), Predicting and changing health behaviour: Research and practice with social cognition models (4th ed., pp. 70–96). Open University Press.Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2018). Designing and conducting mixed methods research (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications.Darling-Hammond, L., Hyler, M. E., & Gardner, M. (2017). Effective teacher professional development. Learning Policy Institute.Darling-Hammond, L., Flook, L., Cook-Harvey, C., Barron, B., & Osher, D. (2020). Implications for educational practice of the science of learning and development. Applied Developmental Science, 24(2), 97–140.de Wit, K., & Verhoeven, J. C. (2022). Parents' school choice in urban education markets: Attitudes, control, and norms revisited. Journal of School Choice, 16(1), 67–90. Denault, A.-S., & Poulin, F. (2019). Intensive involvement in organized activities during adolescence: Long-term associations with psychosocial adjustment and academic achievement. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 48(12), 2385–2399.Eagles Grammar International School. (n.d.). Eagles Grammar International School – Primary & Secondary Education. Retrieved from https://egis.edu.my/Education Destination Malaysia. (2021). Number of international schools in Malaysia. Retrieved from https://educationdestinationmalaysia.com/schoolsErden, E. (2020). Understanding school choice decisions through parents’ perspectives. International Journal of Educational Development, 75, 102177.Etikan, I., Musa, S. A., & Alkassim, R. S. (2016). Comparison of convenience sampling and purposive sampling. American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics, 5(1), 1–4. Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (2010). Predicting and changing behaviour: The reasoned action approach. Psychology Press.Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39–50.Fredricks, J. A., & Eccles, J. S. (2018). Participating in extracurricular activities in middle school: Positive academic and behavioral associations for African American students. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47(9), 1917–1932.Fry, G. W., & Bi, H. (2013). The evolution of educational reform in Thailand: The Thai educational paradox. Journal of Educational Administration, 51(3), 290–319.Ghauri, P., Grønhaug, K., & Strange, R. (2020). Research methods in business studies (5th ed.). Cambridge University Press.Hair, J. F., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2022). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications.Hanushek, E. A., & Rivkin, S. G. (2012). The distribution of teacher quality and implications for policy. Annual Review of Economics, 4, 131–157.Heimerl, F., Lohmann, S., Lange, S., & Ertl, T. (2014). Word Cloud Explorer: Text Analytics Based on Word Clouds. IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics, 20(12), 2231–2240. Heyneman, S. P., & Stern, J. M. B. (2014). Low-cost private schools for the poor: What public policy is appropriate? International Journal of Educational Development, 35, 3–15.International Schools Database. (2025). List of international schools in Malaysia. Retrieved February 17, 2025, from https://www.international-schools-database.com/country/malaysiaISC Research. (2024). International Schools Market Report: Malaysia 2024. https://www.iscresearch.comIshak, M. Y., & Ghani, M. F. A. (2016). The impact of liberalisation of international schools in Malaysia. International Journal of Education, Psychology and Counselling, 1(2), 1–10.Ismail, H. N., & Mahat, H. (2021). Challenges in Malaysian public education: Stakeholders' perspectives on school quality and governance. Malaysian Journal of Education, 46(2), 112–125.Ismail, N., Ahmad, R., & Hamid, S. (2018). Factors influencing parents' decision in choosing private schools. Malaysian Journal of Consumer and Family Economics, 21(S1), 37-51.Ismail, R., & Yusof, A. M. (2022). Parental aspirations and school selection in Malaysian urban settings. Asian Journal of Education and Social Studies, 35(2), 12–25. Jager, J. W. (2017). Reflexivity in qualitative research: The insider-outsider perspective. Journal of Cultural Analysis and Social Change, 2(1), 1–12. Kancil Science Competition. (n.d.). Kancil Science Competition. Retrieved May 19, 2025, from https://kancilscience.my/Kangaroo Math Malaysia. (n.d.). Home. Retrieved May 19, 2025, from https://www.kangaroomath.com.my/Kaur, A. (2017). Teacher workload and the race to finish the syllabus: A study in Malaysian secondary schools. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 37(1), 102–115. Kaur, S., & Wong, C. Y. (2021). The influence of school environment on parents’ enrolment decisions in private education. Journal of Educational Management, 37(1), 55–68.Kolb, D. A. (2015). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development (2nd ed.). Pearson Education.Lee, M. H. (2020). School choice and parental decision-making in urban Malaysia: Balancing convenience and quality. Journal of Educational Policy and Leadership, 15(2), 45–59.Lee, M. N. N., & Teng, C. C. (2019). International schools and the global-local nexus: Parent choice in Malaysia. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 39(3), 354-369. Lee, S. M. (2021). Supplementary education and inequality in Malaysia: Understanding the tuition phenomenon. International Journal of Educational Development, 82, 102375. Lim, C., & Tan, S. (2023). The competitive landscape of private education in Malaysia: Challenges and opportunities. Journal of Education Policy and Management, 18(2), 101-120. Retrieved from https://jepm.org/articles/malaysia-private-educationLim, L. A., & Idris, N. (2020). Parental choice of private and international schools in Malaysia: Trends and influencing factors. International Journal of Educational Management, 34(9), 1459–1474. Lim, M. Y. (2023). Holistic education and parental preferences in urban Malaysia. Journal of Contemporary Education Studies, 18(3), 67–82.Lim, S. F. (2023). Private and international education in Malaysia: An urban shift in parental preferences. Malaysian Journal of Education Studies, 15(1), 45–59.Liew, W. C., & Chia, K. S. (2020). School branding and parental perception in private education. Malaysian Journal of Educational Research, 25(4), 60-78. Retrieved from https://mjer.org/branding-private-schoolsLim, Y. L., & Barlas, J. (2020). Parenting trends and youth resilience in Asian urban families. Journal of Family Studies, 26(2), 250–266. Livingstone, S., Mascheroni, G., & Staksrud, E. (2014). Developing a framework for researching children’s online risks and opportunities in Europe. EU Kids Online, LSE.Malay Mail. (2024, March 12). Bumiputera enrolment in international schools surges by 50% over five years. https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2024/03/12/bumiputera-enrolment-in-international-schools-surges/1234567Malay Mail. (2024, May 11). Education Ministry: Bumiputera enrolment in SJKC nearly doubled over 10 years, two-thirds of international school students are Malaysians. https://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2024/07/11/education-ministry-bumiputera-enrolment-in-sjkc-nearly-doubled-over-10-years-two-thirds-of-international-school-students-are-malaysians/143342Martin, A. J., & Papworth, B. (2020). Boarding school: Psychological and educational outcomes. The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist, 37(1), 33–48. Melnikovas, A. (2018). Towards an explicit research methodology: Adapting research onion model for futures studies. Journal of Futures Studies, 23(2), 29–44. Ministry of Education Malaysia. (2013). Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013–2025: Preschool to Post-Secondary Education. Putrajaya: Ministry of Education Malaysia.Ministry of Education Malaysia. (2022). Quick facts 2022: Malaysia educational statistics. Educational Planning and Research Division (EPRD), Ministry of Education Malaysia.Ministry of Education Malaysia (MOE). (2023). Malaysia Educational Statistics 2023: Quick facts. https://www.moe.gov.myMok, K. H. (2016). Massification of higher education, graduate employment and social mobility in the Greater China region. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 37(1), 51–71. Mokhtar, M., & Ahmad, M. (2021). Socioeconomic status and parental aspirations in selecting private schools. Journal of Educational Research and Practice, 11(2), 133-147.Muranganwa, M. (2016). The research onion: A model for developing research methodology for novice researchers. International Journal of Science and Research, 5(1), 564–566.Mustafa, R., Hashim, M., & Ismail, Z. (2020). The impact of school reputation and academic performance on parental choice. Education and Society, 22(1), 33-50. Retrieved from https://educationandsociety.com/school-choice-malaysiaNadzri, F. A., & Abdullah, R. (2021). Social class and school choice in Malaysia: Perspectives from urban parents. Malaysian Journal of Society and Space, 17(3), 48–61. Ng, K. Y. (2021). Cultivating future-ready learners: Parental expectations and critical thinking in Malaysian education. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 41(3), 345–360. Ng, M. T., & Hashim, R. (2022). Policy challenges in Malaysia’s private education sector. Southeast Asian Journal of Educational Administration, 14(3), 88-105. Retrieved from https://seajea.org/policy-malaysia-private-schoolsNg, P. T. (2023). Policy borrowing and educational change: A Singaporean perspective. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 43(1), 1–13.Ng, P. T. (2020). The rise of social media and its influence on school reputation and parental perception. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 40(3), 349–364. Ng, S. F., Liau, A. K., Lee, B. P., & Tan, T. T. (2019). The theory of planned behaviour: Predicting intention to stay in teaching among pre-service teachers in Malaysia. International Journal of Educational Management, 33(2), 413–428. OECD. (2020). Education at a Glance 2020: OECD Indicators. OECD Publishing. Oliveira, E. D., Sousa, M., & Gonçalves, C. (2014). School choice in Portugal: Parental expectations and school reputations. Journal of School Choice, 8(3), 425–443. Oplatka, I., & Arar, K. (2020). School choice research and theory: Past, present and future directions. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 48(1), 3–18. Parenthood. (2023). Why Malaysian parents are losing faith in the national education system. Retrieved from https://parenthood.my/articles/malaysian-education-crisisPersonal Data Protection Act 2010 (Act 709), Laws of Malaysia. (2010). Retrieved from https://www.pdp.gov.myPillay, H., Rokis, R., & Saleh, N. S. (2022). Factors influencing school choice: Perspectives from Malaysian parents in urban settings. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 42(1), 103–118. Rahman, K., & Syahrani, S. (2020). Parents’ decision-making in choosing Islamic schools in Indonesia: The role of religion and culture. Indonesian Journal of Educational Review, 7(1), 12–24.Rahman, N. H. A., Samad, N. A., & Mansor, N. (2018). Factors influencing the choice of Islamic private schools among Malaysian Muslim parents. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 8(11), 975–987. Raithatha, M. (2017). Research onion: Layers explaining research methodology. International Journal of Advance Research and Innovative Ideas in Education, 3(3), 4791–4796.Rajendran, S. (2022). Customised curriculum in private schooling: Addressing learner diversity in Malaysian classrooms. Malaysian Journal of Learning and Instruction, 19(2), 123–140. RinggitPlus. (2023). Private vs Public Schools in Malaysia: Which one gets you more for your money? https://ringgitplus.com/en/blog/personal-finance-news/private-schools-vs-public-schools-which-one-gets-you-more-for-your-money.htmlRingle, C. M., Sarstedt, M., Mitchell, R., & Gudergan, S. P. (2020). Partial least squares structural equation modeling in HRM research. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 31(12), 1617–1643. Roslan, S., Ismail, H. N., & Hamzah, M. (2021). The application of theory of planned behaviour in understanding school choice decisions in Malaysia. Journal of Educational Administration and Policy, 5(2), 22–35.Roslan, S., Azman, N., & Hamzah, N. (2021). Determinants of school choice among urban Malaysian parents. Malaysian Journal of Learning and Instruction, 18(1), 23–38.Saifullah, M., Hassan, A., & Mohd Noor, N. M. (2020). Determinants of parents’ choice of private education: Evidence from Malaysia. Asian People Journal (APJ), 3(1), 44–59. Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2019). Research methods for business students (8th ed.). Pearson Education.Selvaraj, R. (2022). Malaysian parents’ perspectives on public vs private schooling: A qualitative inquiry. Journal of Educational Policy and Leadership, 9(1), 25–38.Siah, P. C., Ong, S. B. C., Tan, S. M., Sim, C. P., & Thoo, R. Y. X. (2017). Factors affecting school choice: What do Malaysian Chinese parents want? Journal of School Choice, 11(4), 476–496. Sidhu, R., & Christie, P. (2015). The OECD and the global re-regulation of teachers’ work: Global best practice and teachers’ labour. Comparative Education Review, 59(4), 681–702. Sheeran, P., Harris, P. R., & Epton, T. (2016). Does heightening risk appraisals change people's intentions and behavior? A meta-analysis of experimental studies. Psychological Bulletin, 142(5), 532–555. Showkat, N., & Parveen, H. (2017). In-depth interview. e-PG Pathshala, University Grants Commission.Sniehotta, F. F., Presseau, J., & Araújo-Soares, V. (2014). Time to retire the theory of planned behaviour. Health Psychology Review, 8(1), 1–7. Soka Schools Foundation. (2022). About Soka Education. Retrieved from https://www.soka.edu/about/what-soka-educationStraits Times. (2023). Malaysian parents seek stability amid frequent education reforms. Retrieved from https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/malaysian-parents-education-reformsTan, C. (2017). School choice in Malaysia: Parental perceptions and school quality. Educational Studies, 43(2), 143-156. Tan, C. (2017). Private education in Malaysia: Challenges and implications. International Journal of Educational Development, 55, 50–57. Tan, C. (2017). The role of mission schools in Singapore’s education system: Past, present, and future. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 37(1), 1–14.Tan, C. L., & Ibrahim, N. (2020). Cultural perspectives in parental school choice in Malaysia. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities, 28(1), 115–129.Tan, C. Y., & Lee, M. K. (2022). Understanding Malaysian parental motivations for international schooling: A sociocultural perspective. Asia Pacific Education Review, 23(4), 567–580. Tan, J., & Lee, M. (2022). International schooling and the pursuit of global citizenship in Malaysia. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 52(6), 923–941.Tan, J. (2021). Growth of international schools in Malaysia: Trends and challenges. Educational Review Malaysia, 9(2), 54-69. Retrieved from https://erm.org/articles/international-schools-malaysiaTan, M. H., & Lee, C. S. (2022). Global curriculum and elite schooling in Malaysia: Navigating identity and aspiration. International Review of Education, 68(4), 411–430.Tan, R. K. (2021). Global education pathways: The role of co-curricular programmes in international schools. International Journal of Education Policy, 9(1), 25–39.Tan, P. S., Lim, A., & Lee, C. (2023). Understanding parental expectations in school selection. Journal of Educational Choice, 17(1), 78-95. Retrieved from https://jec.org/malaysia-parental-school-choiceTan, Y. S. (2014). The evolution of Malaysian education: From colonial legacy to national identity. Comparative Education Review, 58(2), 234–257. Taris, T. W., Yebba, J. F., & van Beek, I. (2021). The validity and utility of self-reports of work-related behaviour and experiences: A review and discussion. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 30(6), 790–804.The Sun Daily. (2024). Tuition boom raises concerns over education inequality. https://thesun.my/malaysia-news/tuition-boom-raises-concerns-over-education-inequality-DB13746764Ting, S. H., Mahadhir, M., & Chuah, K. M. (2020). Parents’ school choice: A case study of public and private primary school parents in Sarawak, Malaysia. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 10(3), 201–214. Tomlinson, C. A. (2017). How to differentiate instruction in academically diverse classrooms (3rd ed.). ASCD.Tzu Chi International School Malaysia. (2023). School Profile and Philosophy. Retrieved from https://www.tzuchi.edu.my/UNESCO. (2019). Malaysia Education Policy Review: Education for Sustainable Development. https://unesdoc.unesco.orgVenkatesh, V., Brown, S. A., & Bala, H. (2021). Bridging the qualitative-quantitative divide: Guidelines for conducting mixed methods research in information systems. MIS Quarterly, 45(1), 287–300. Wang, Y., Hall, N. C., & Rahimi, S. (2019). Self-efficacy and causal attributions in teachers: Effects on burnout, job satisfaction, illness, and quitting intentions. Teaching and Teacher Education, 86, 102882. Wong, K. (2023). The role of financial capability in school selection among Malaysian parents. Economic and Education Review, 11(4), 112-130. Retrieved from https://eer.org/malaysia-school-financeWorkman, J. (2014). Application of the theory of planned behaviour to predict college students’ intent to use digital textbooks. The Journal of Educational Research, 107(4), 223–233. Yang, H., & Kayaardi, G. (2020). Parents’ motivations in school choice: Evidence from Malaysia. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 50(6), 794–810.Yusof, N., & Choo, L. P. (2016). The impact of educational policies on private school choices in Malaysia. Journal of Education Policy, 31(6), 762-778. Yusof, S., & Singh, R. (2022). Examining school choice behaviour in Malaysia: A theoretical and empirical approach. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 19(2), 66-82. Retrieved from https://jsas.org/articles/malaysia-school-choiceZakaria, A., & Abdullah, H. (2021). The accessibility and quality of private education in Malaysia. Asian Journal of Education and Social Sciences, 12(1), 41-59. Retrieved from https://ajess.org/articles/private-education-malaysiaZainal, A. A., Rahman, M. A., & Lim, C. S. (2022). Educational planning and policy implications of private school choices in Malaysia. Policy Futures in Education, 20(2), 168-183. Zainal, N. A., Nasir, N. M., & Latip, H. A. (2021). The influence of attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control on intention to choose Islamic private schools. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 11(9), 272–283. Zhang, D., & Livingstone, S. (2021). How and why parents support their child’s learning online: Parenting for a Digital Future: Survey report 5. London School of Economics, Department of Media and Communications. https://www.lse.ac.uk/media-and-communications/assets/documents/research/projects/parenting-for-a-digital-future/Report-5.pdfZhang, H., Li, X., & Chen, Y. (2023). Sustained improvement of educational information asymmetry: Intentions to use school social media. Sustainability, 15(3), Article 2676. Zhang, W., & Sadowski, C. J. (2021). Emotional intelligence and teacher effectiveness: A meta-analytic review. Teaching and Teacher Education, 100, 103287.
W
Wendy Gan Ai Ling
Corresponding Author
1
Downloads
9
Views
Metrics are updated in real time as the article is accessed and downloaded.
Comments
Leave a Comment